For so long as human beings have understood that sexual intercourse is the natural means of reproduction and is liable to result in conception, and have wanted to have vaginal sex without pregnancy, they have practised forms of contraception. The most basic of these methods are coitus interruptus in which the man withdraws before ejaculation, and douching in which the vagina is washed out after sex with water, vinegar, or various other solutions. There then developed the use of pessaries and condoms, the significance of the latter being that the use of artificial contraceptives then required responsibility for precautions being taken by the man (though often women continued to douche. Condoms were also and perhaps primarily used to protect from sexually transmitted diseases, particularly syphilis which in the 15th and early 16th centuries caused large numbers of deaths in Europe and China. With rapidly expanding populations, and the continuing fear of STDs condom manufacture became industrialised in the mid 19th century. The most innovative and transformative development, however, was the discovery of the female oral contraceptive. This was both reliable and gave control to women over their fertility. Ethically Judaism, Christianity and Islam opposed contraception on the grounds that it sought to thwart God’s design and command to be fertile, and because it was thought to assist sex outside marriage, adultery, promiscuity and prostitution. These considerations were also voiced outside theological contexts substituting ‘Nature’ for ‘God’. Concerns about general overpopulation and the specific burdens of very large families intensifying poverty and deprivation particularly in the cities, led Anglicans to qualify their traditional opposition. At the 1930 Lambeth conference it was resolved that "in those cases where there is such a clearly felt moral obligation to limit or avoid parenthood, and where there is a morally sound reason for avoiding complete abstinence, the Conference agrees that other methods may be used, provided that this is done in the light of the same Christian principles." Thirty years later, the development of the non-barrier method of oral contraception, along with increasing world population led to a debate within the Roman Catholic Church, leading many to expect it to change its teaching in line with the Anglicans. The 1968 Encyclical of Pope Paul VI, Humanae Vitae, however, restated the opposition to artificial birth control (permitting natural family planning). Among the reasons given was that the decoupling of sex from reproduction would “open wide the way for marital infidelity and a general lowering of moral standards. … another effect that gives cause for alarm is that a man who grows accustomed to the use of contraceptive methods may forget the reverence due to a woman, and, disregarding her physical and emotional equilibrium, reduce her to being a mere instrument for the satisfaction of his own desires”.